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Theodore Beza (Theodore de Beze or de Besze) (June
24, 1519 -
October 13,
1605) was a
French
Protestant
Christian
theologian
and scholar
who played an important role in the early
Reformation. He was a disciple of
John
Calvin and lived most of his life in
Switzerland.
Theodore Beza was born at
Vezelay (8
miles west-south-west of
Avallon), in
Burgundy.
His father, Pierre de Beze, royal governor of
Vezelay,
descended from a
Burgundian
family of distinction; his mother, Marie Bourdelot, was known for her
generosity. Beza's father had two brothers; Nicholas, who was member of
Parliament
at Paris; and Claude, who was
abbot of the
Cistercian
monastery
Froimont in the diocese of
Beauvais.
Nicholas, who was unmarried, during a visit to Vezelay was so pleased with
Theodore that, with the permission of their parents, he took him to Paris to
educate him there. From Paris, Theodore was sent to
Orleans in
December 1528 to enjoy the instruction of the famous German teacher
Melchior Wolmar. He was received into Wolmar's house, and the day on which
this took place was afterward celebrated as a second birthday.
Young Beza soon followed his teacher to
Bourges,
whither the latter was called by the
duchess
Margaret of
Angoulême, sister of
Francis I. Bourges was one of the places in France in which the heart of the
Reformation movement beat the strongest. When, in 1534, Francis I issued his
edict against ecclesiastical innovations, Wolmar returned to Germany, and, in
accordance with the wish of his father, Beza went back to Orleans to study law,
and spent four years there (1535-39). This pursuit had little attraction for
him; he enjoyed more the reading of the ancient classics, especially
Ovid,
Catullus,
and Tibullus.
He received the degree of licentiate in law August 11, 1539, and, as his father
desired, went to Paris, where he began practise. His relatives had obtained for
him two benefices, the proceeds of which amounted to 700 golden crowns a year;
and his uncle had promised to make him his successor.
Beza spent two happy years at Paris and soon gained a prominent position in
literary circles. To escape the many temptations to which he was exposed, with
the knowledge of two friends, he became engaged in the year 1544 to a young girl
of humble descent, Claudine Denoese, promising to make this engagement public as
soon as his circumstances would allow it. He published a collection of Latin
poems, Juvenilia, which made him famous, and he was everywhere considered
one of the best writers of Latin
poetry of his
time.
But he fell ill and his distress of body, it is reported, revealed to him his
spiritual needs. Gradually he came to the knowledge of salvation in Christ,
which he apprehended with a joyous faith. He then resolved to sever his
connections of the time, and went to
Geneva, the
French city of refuge for Evangelicals (adherents of the Reformation movement),
where he arrived with Claudine on October 23,
1548.
Teacher at Lausanne
He was heartily received by
John
Calvin, who had met him already in Wolmar's house, and was at once publicly
and solemnly married in the church. Beza was at a loss for immediate occupation,
so he went to Tübingen to see his former teacher Wolmar. On his way home he
visited Viret at Lausanne, who at once detained him and brought about his
appointment as professor of Greek at the academy there (Nov., 1549).
In spite of the arduous work which fell to his lot, Beza found time to write
a Biblical drama, Abraham Sacrifiant (published at Geneva, 1550; Eng.
transl. by Arthur Golding, London, 1577, ed., with introduction, notes, and the
French text of the original, M. W. Wallace, Toronto, 1906), in which he
contrasted
Catholicism with
Protestantism, and the work was well received. In June, 1551, he added a few
psalms to the French version of the Psalms begun by
Marot,
which was also very successful.
About the same time he published his Passavantius, a satire directed
against Pierre Lizet of ill repute, formerly president of the Parliament of
Paris, and principal originator of the "fiery chamber" (chambre ardente),
who, being at the time (1551) abbot of St. Victor near Paris, was eager to
acquire the fame of a subduer of heresy by publishing a number of polemical
writings.
Of a more serious character were two controversies in which Beza was involved
at this time. The first concerned the doctrine of predestination and the
controversy of Calvin with
Jerome Hermes Bolsec. The second referred to the burning of
Michael Servetus at Geneva Oct. 27, 1553. In defense of Calvin and the
Genevan magistrates, Beza published in 1554 the work De haereticis a civili
magistratu puniendis (translated into French in 1560).
Journeys in behalf of the Protestants
In 1557 Beza took a special interest in the
Waldensians of
Piedmont, who were harassed by the French government, and in their behalf
went with Farel to Bern, Zurich, Basel, Schaffhausen, thence to Strasburg,
Mumpelgart, Baden, and Goppingen. In Baden and Goppingen, Beza and Farel had to
declare themselves concerning their own and the Waldensians' views on the
sacrament, and on May 14, 1557, they presented a written declaration is which
they clearly stated their position. This declaration was well received by the
Lutheran theologians, but was strongly disapproved in Bern and Zurich.
In the autumn of 1557 Beza undertook a second journey with Farel to Worms by
way of Strasburg to bring about an intercession of the Evangelical princes of
the empire in favor of the persecuted brethren at Paris. With
Melanchthon and other theologians then assembled at the
Colloquy of Worms, Beza considered a union of all Protestant Christians, but
this proposal was decidedly negatived by Zurich and Bern. False reports having
reached the German princes that the hostilities against the
Huguenots
in France had ceased, no embassy was sent to the court of France, and Beza
undertook another journey in the interest of the Huguenots, going with Farel,
Johannes Buddaeus, and Gaspard Carmel to Strasburg and Frankfort, where the
sending of an embassy to Paris was resolved upon.
Settles in Geneva
Upon his return to Lausanne, Beza was greatly disturbed. In union with many
ministers and professors in city and country, Viret at last thought of
establishing a consistory and of introducing a church discipline which should
inflict excommunication especially at the celebration of the communion. But the
Bernese would have no Calvinistic church government. This caused many
difficulties, and Beza thought it best (1558) to settle at Geneva.
Here he occupied at first the chair of Greek in the newly established
academy, and after Calvin's death also that of theology; besides this he was
obliged to preach. He completed the revision of Olivetan's translation of the
New
Testament, begun some years before. In
1559 he undertook
another journey in the interest of the Huguenots, this time to
Heidelberg;
about the same time he had to defend Calvin against
Joachim Westphal in
Hamburg and
Tileman Hesshusen.
More important than this polemical activity was Beza's statement of his own
confession. It was originally prepared for his father in justification of his
course and published in revised form to promote Evangelical knowledge among
Beza's countrymen. It was printed in Latin in 1560 with a dedication to Wolmar.
An English translation was published at London 1563, 1572, and 1585.
Translations into German, Dutch, and Italian were also issued.
Events of 1560-63
In the mean time things took such shape in France that the happiest future
for Protestantism seemed possible. King Antony of Navarre, yielding to the
urgent requests of Evangelical noblemen, declared his willingness to listen to a
prominent teacher of the Church. Beza, a French nobleman and head of the academy
in the metropolis of French Protestantism, was invited to Castle Nerac, but he
could not plant the seed of Evangelical faith in the heart of the king.
In the year following (1561) Beza represented the Evangelicals at the
Colloquy of Poissy, and in an eloquent manner defended the principles of the
Evangelical faith. The colloquy was without result, but Beza as the head and
advocate of all Reformed congregations of France was revered and hated at the
same time. The queen insisted upon another colloquy, which was opened at St.
Germain Jan. 28, 1562, eleven days after the proclamation of the famous January
edict which granted important privileges to those of the Reformed faith. But the
colloquy was broken off when it became evident that the Catholic party was
preparing (after the massacre of Vassy, Mar. 1) to overthrow Protestantism.
Beza hastily issued a circular letter (Mar. 25) to all Reformed congregations
of the empire, and with Conde and his troops went to Orleans. It was necessary
to proceed quickly and energetically. But there were neither soldiers nor money.
At the request of Conde, Beza visited all Huguenot cities to obtain both. He
also wrote a manifesto in which he argued the justice of the Reformed cause. As
one of the messengers to collect soldiers and money among his coreligionists,
Beza was appointed to visit England, Germany, and Switzerland. He went to
Strasburg and Basel, but met with failure. He then returned to Geneva, which he
reached Sept. 4. He had hardly been there fourteen days when he was called once
more to Orleans by D'Andelot. The campaign was becoming more successful; but the
publication of the unfortunate edict of pacification which Conde accepted (Mar.
12,1563) filled Beza and all Protestant France with horror.
Calvin's Successor
For twenty-two months Beza had been absent from Geneva, and the interests of
school and Church there and especially the condition of Calvin made it necessary
for him to return. For there was no one to take the place of Calvin, who was
sick and unable longer to bear the burden resting on him. Calvin and Beza
arranged to perform their duties jointly in alternate weeks, but the death of
Calvin occurred soon afterward (May 27, 1564). As a matter of course Beza was
his successor.
Until 1580 Beza was not only moderateur de la compagnie des pasteurs,
but also the real soul of the great institution of learning at Geneva
which Calvin had founded in 1559, consisting of a gymnasium and an academy. As
long as be lived, Beza was interested in higher education. The Protestant youth
for nearly forty years thronged his lecture-room to hear his theological
lectures, in which he expounded the purest Calvinistic orthodoxy. As a counselor
he was listened to by both magistrates and pastors. Geneva is indebted to him
for the founding of a law school in which
Francois Hotman, Jules Pacius, and Denys Godefroy, the most eminent jurists
of the century, lectured in turn (cf. Charles Borgeaud, L'Academie de Calvin,
Geneva, 1900).
Course of Events after 1564
As Calvin's successor, Beza was very successful, not only in carrying on his
work but also in giving peace to the Church at Geneva. The magistrates had fully
appropriated the ideas of Calvin, and the direction of spiritual affairs, the
organs of which were the "ministers of the word" and "the consistory," was
founded on a solid basis. No doctrinal controversy arose after 1564. The
discussions concerned questions of a practical, social, or ecclesiastical
nature, such as the supremacy of the magistrates over the pastors, freedom in
preaching, and the obligation of the pastors to submit to the majority of the
campagnie des pasteurs.
Beza obtruded his will in no way upon his associates, and took no harsh
measures against injudicious or hot-headed colleagues, though sometimes he took
their cases in hand and acted as mediator; and yet he often experienced an
opposition so extreme that he threatened to resign. Although he was inclined to
take the part of the magistrates, he knew how to defend the rights and
independence of the spiritual power when occasion arose, without, however,
conceding to it such a preponderating influence as did Calvin.
His activity was great. He mediated between the compagnie and the
magistracy; the latter continually asked his advice even in political questions.
He corresponded with all the leaders of the Reformed party in Europe. After the
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572), he used his influence to give to the
refugees a hospitable reception at Geneva.
In 1574 he wrote his De jure magistratuum (Right
of Magistrates), in which he emphatically protested against tyranny in
religious matters, and affirmed that it is legitimate for a people to oppose an
unworthy magistracy in a practical manner and if necessary to use weapons and
depose them.
To sum up: Without being a great dogmatician like his master, nor a creative
genius in the ecclesiastical realm, Beza had qualities which made him famous as
humanist, exegete, orator, and leader in religious and political affairs, and
qualified him to be the guide of the Calvinists in all Europe. In the various
controversies into which he was drawn, Beza often showed an excess of irritation
and intolerance, from which Bernardino Ochino, pastor of the Italian
congregation at Zurich (on account of a treatise which contained some
objectionable points on polygamy), and
Sebastian Castellio at Basel (on account of his Latin and French
translations of the Bible) had especially to suffer.
With Reformed France Beza continued to maintain the closest relations. He was
the moderator
of the general synod which met in April, 1571, at
La
Rochelle and decided not to abolish church discipline or to acknowledge the
civil government as head of the Church, as the Paris minister Jean Morel and the
philosopher
Pierre
Ramus demanded; it also decided to confirm anew the Calvinistic doctrine of
the Lord's Supper (by the expression: "substance of the body of Christ") against
Zwinglianism, which caused a very unpleasant discussion between Beza and Ramus
and Bullinger.
In the following year (May, 1572) he took an important part in the national
synod at Nimes.
He was also interested in the controversies which concerned the
Augsburg Confession in Germany, especially after 1564, on the doctrine of
the person of Christ and the sacrament, and published several works against
Westphal,
Hesshusen,
Selnecker,
Johannes Brenz, and
Jakob
Andrea. This made him, especially after 1571, hated by all those who adhered
to Lutheranism in opposition to Melanchthon.
The Colloquy of Mumpelgart
The last polemical conflict of importance Beza encountered from the exclusive
Lutherans was at the
Colloquy of Mumpelgart, Mar. 14-27, 1586, to which he had been invited by
the Lutheran Count Frederick of Württemberg at the wish of the French noblemen
who had fled to Mumpelgart. As a matter of course the intended union which was
the purpose of the colloquy was not brought about; nevertheless it called forth
serious developments within the Reformed Church.
When the ion of the acts of the colloquy, as prepared by Jakob Andrea,
was published,
Samuel Huber, of Burg near Bern, who belonged to the Lutheranizing faction
of the Swiss clergy, took so great offense at the supralapsarian doctrine of
predestination propounded at Mumpelgart by Beza and Musculus that he felt it to
be his duty to denounce Musculus to the magistrates of Bern as an innovator in
doctrine. To adjust the matter, the magistrates arranged a colloquy between
Huber and Musculus (Sept. 2, 1587), in which the former represented the
universalism, the latter the particularism, of grace.
As the colloquy was resultless, a debate was arranged at Bern, Apr. 15-18,
1588, at which the defense of the accepted system of doctrine was at the start
put into Beza's hands. The three delegates of the Helvetic cantons who presided
at the debate declared in the end that Beza had substantiated the teaching
propounded at Mumpelgart as the orthodox one, and Huber was dismissed from his
office.
Last Days
After that time Beza's activity was confined more and more to the affairs of
his home. His faithful wife Claudine had died childless in 1588, a few days
before he went to the Bern Disputation. Forty years they had lived happily
together. He contracted, on the advice of his friends, a second marriage with
Catharina del Piano, a Genoese widow, in order to have a helpmate in his
declining years. Up to his sixty-fifth year he enjoyed excellent health, but
after that a gradual sinking of his vitality became perceptible. He was active
in teaching till Jan., 1597.
The saddest experience in his old days was the conversion of King
Henry IV to Catholicism, in spite of his most earnest exhortations (1593).
Strange to say, in 1596 the report was spread by the Jesuits in Germany, France,
England, and Italy that Beza and the Church of Geneva had returned into the
bosom of Rome, and Beza replied in a satire that revealed the possession still
of his old fire of thought and vigor of expression.
He died in
Geneva. He was not buried, like Calvin, in the general cemetery, Plain-Palais
(for the Savoyards had threatened to abduct his body to Rome), but at the
direction of the magistrates, in the monastery of St. Pierre.
Humanistic and Historical Writings
In Beza's literary activity as well as in his life, distinction must be made
between the period of the humanist (which ended with the publication of his
Juvenilia) and that of the ecclesiastic. But later productions like the
humanistic, biting, satirical Passavantius and his Complainte de
Messire Pierre Lizet . . . prove that in later years he occasionally went
back to his first love. In his old age he published his Cato censorius
(1591), and revised his Poemata, from which he purged juvenile
eccentricities.
Of his historiographical works, aside from his Icones (1580), which
have only an iconographical value, mention may be made of the famous Histoire
ecclesiastique des Eglises reformes au Royaume de France (1580), and
his biography of Calvin, with which must be named his ion of Calvin's
Epistolae et responsa (1575).
Theological Works
But all these humanistic and historical studies ire surpassed by his
theological productions (contained in Tractationes theologicae). In these
Beza appears the perfect pupil or the alter ego of Calvin. His view of
life is deterministic and the basis of his religious thinking is the
predestinate recognition of the necessity of all temporal existence as an effect
of the absolute, eternal, and immutable will of God, so that even the fall of
the human race appears to him essential to the divine plan of the world. In most
lucid manner Beza shows in tabular form the connection of the religious views
which emanated from thin fundamental supralapsarian mode of thought. This he
added to his highly instructive treatise Summa totius Christianismi.
Beza's Greek New Testament
Of no less importance are the contributions of Beza to Biblical science. In
1565 he issued an ion of the Greek
New
Testament, accompanied in parallel columns by the text of the
Vulgate and a
translation of his own (already published as early as 1556). Annotations were
added, also previously published, but now he greatly enriched and enlarged them.
In the preparation of this ion of the Greek text, but much more in the
preparation of the second ion which he brought out in 1582, Beza may have
availed himself of the help of two very valuable manuscripts. One is known as
the
Codex Bezae or Cantabrigensis, and was later presented by Beza to
the University of Cambridge; the second is the
Codex Claromontanus, which Beza had found in Clermont (now in the
National Library at Paris).
It was not, however, to these sources that Beza was chiefly indebted, but
rather to the previous ion of the eminent
Robert Estienne (1550), itself based in great measure upon one of the later
ions of
Erasmus. Beza's labors in this direction were exceedingly helpful to those
who came after. The same thing may be asserted with equal truth of his Latin
version and of the copious notes with which it was accompanied. The former is
said to have been published over a hundred times.
Although some lament that Beza's view of the doctrine of predestination
exercised too preponderating an influence upon his interpretation of the
Scriptures, there is no question that he added much to a clear understanding of
the New Testament.
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